Roman leaders Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey agreed on a short-term alliance in the 60s BC. They countered for position against the aristocratic Senate and proclaimed themselves the people’s champions in contrast to the Roman elites.
Though these three charismatic military leaders had personal ambitions of their own, they formed an alliance until they decided their next move. Everyone knew these three were too power hungry to get along for long and it was only a matter of time until they turned against each other – Rome watched.
In 58 BC, Caesar headed for Gaul, a region roughly encompassing present-day France and Belgium and parts of the Netherlands.
Rome didn’t control the entirety of the territory, so Caesar and his army went to work conquering the remainder of Gaul. These wars of conquest are known as the Gallic Wars.
The Triumvirate used their military power to intimidate the Roman Senate into passing legislation, through the popular assembly.
Such laws were self-serving. Caesar, for example, was named governor of the Cisalpine and Narbonese provinces (regions in present-day northern Italy and southern France and given military command over the territories -that’s when the Gallic Wars began.
Although, Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, most historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost Caesar’s political career, pay off his massive debts, and expand his military.
Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans, as they had been attacked several times by native tribes, both indigenous Gauls and farther to the north.
As Caesar returned from his second expedition to Britain in 54 BC, there was already trouble looming in Gaul and in his personal life. He received word that his daughter Julia, wife of Pompey had died in childbirth.
This event was assuredly difficult for Caesar on a personal level, but also carried monumental political ramifications as well.
Shortly after word of Julia’s death, Caesar also received the news of the death of his mother, Aurelia.
With the Gallic revolt on the horizon, and the recent tragic news, 54 BC was shaping into a annus horribilis (terrible year) for Caesar.
Caesar attempted to confirm the alliance by offering his grandniece Octavia, as a new bride to Pompey, while also offering to divorce his own wife and marry Pompey’s daughter.
While Julia lived, Pompey remained at least partially allied to Caesar, but with her death, Pompey drifted ever closer to Caesar’s enemies, the Boni.
Pompey’s refusal, though an indication of his own personal grief, was also a clear signal that the triumvirate was slowly breaking apart.
With the death of Crassus two years later, the coming civil war seemed inevitable. For now , despite his personal and political losses, Caesar had to deal with revolts in Gaul and renewed trouble with Germanic tribes.
Caeser’s Gaul
There were many different groups that made up the Belgae, and partway through Caesar’s conquest, they all split up into their original tribes again – a fatal mistake – on their part, leading Caesar to his victory.
The Suessiones, Bellovaci, and Ambiani surrendered at first sight of the Roman siege.
The Atrebates and Viromandui tribes were linked with the Nervii, who planned a surprise attack against the Romans.
In the battle of the Sabis, Caesar defeated them. After this, he turned against the Atuatuci, captured their stronghold.
Finally, the Atuatuci tribe surrendered to the Romans, but 24 hrs later, they tried to break free which led to their entire population (53,000 people) were sold into slavery.
In 57 BC, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and also Belgica (modern day Northern France, Belgium and a southern section of The Netherlands to the Rhine River; and the north-western portion of North Rhine-Westphalia, German.
Tensions in the region appeared to have been calmed by Roman troops, but in 54 B.C. the assassination of the Gallic leader Dumnorix ordered by Julius Caesar and hardship stemming from the year’s disastrous wheat harvest led to unrest, which turned against the occupying armies, who had settled down for the winter.
In 54 BC, there was a deficient harvest due to a drought earlier in the yr. Caesar, whose practice was to commandeer part of the food supply from local tribes, was forced to distribute the winter quarters of his troops more widely than common – camps were 300 miles apart between extremes, so they could more easily be supplied with provisions- the Gauls planned to take advantage.
To the Eburones, he sent Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta with the command of a recently levied legion from north of the Po and a detachment of five cohorts.
Titus Labienus, the commander of the Fourth legion, which was stationed in the southern Ardennes, discovered that Indutiomarus and the Treveri were rebelling as well.The Treverian Cheif , Induiomarus , convinced Ambiorix, he should lead his people in an uprising to help break the Roman occupation.
This was the beginning of resistance by the Eburones, under the command of Ambiorix, along with several other Belgian tribes (Aduatuci, Nervii, etc….).
One camp in particular, that of Cotta and Sabinus, was sent to cover the Rhine area in the territory of the Eburones. A surprise ambush dealt Caesar’s legions its first major defeat and opened the door for widespread revolution.
After this Caesar reformed the tribal systems in Gaul, allegedly in the interests of equality and peace, but the reformation served his own purposes – decreasing the power and prestige of any one tribe.
The Eburones profited from this, as they were freed from their obligations to the Aduatuci, and Ambiorix personally benefited as hostages , (including his son and nephew) were set free and the tribute required of his tribe was no longer exacted.
The Romans, therefore, felt secure in their relationship with the tribe, though it was understood that they were still an occupying military force in the Eburones‘ land.
The Romans had built their fort with their typical efficiency, and the Eburones could not take it.
Ambiorix understood that he would have to resort to a different tactic, if he hoped to defeat his enemies and recognized he needed trick them into leaving their defenses behind.
In the winter of 54/53 BCE, the Fourteenth Legion had winter quarters on a place called Aduatuca or Atuatuca, when the Eburones attacked the them.
THE TRAP IS LAID
Ambiorix and his tribesmen attacked and killed several Roman soldiers, who were foraging for wood in the nearby vicinity. The survivors fled back to their camp, followed by Ambiorix and his men.
The Roman representatives, Quintus Junius and Gaius Arpineius, took the news back to the beleaguered fort.
He claimed the Gauls set a date for a general uprising throughout the country, and he could not stand against them, so had been forced to mount his assault on the camp, but he meant them well and came to warn them of a large Germans force, hired by the Gauls which were now, crossing the Rhine, so it would be in the Romans’ best interest to leave their present fort – which could not hold against so large a force and advised the Romans join their comrades at one of the other positions.
He concluded his speech by promising them safe passage through his lands.
Its commanders, Sabinus and Cotta, trusted the Eburonian king Ambiorix, who appeared to be trustworthy, even when he said he could not control his men.
However, when the legionaries left their camp and started to march in the direction indicated by the Eburonian leader and were unexpectedly attacked.
Only a few scattered remains of the army were able to escape to the camp of Labienus some distance away, and if not for these men, the story of the lost cohorts may have been a complete mystery.
The Gauls and Ambiorix found it easy to recruit after this victory and their army swelled to as many as 60,000 warriors.
Acting strategically, Ambiorix drew Cotta’s and Sabinus’s 14th Roman Legion into an ambush, devastating it in the Battle of Aduatuca, which was waged in a deep valley (probably the valley of the Geer between what is now Tongeren and Liège).
The battle, conducted by Ambiorix, was a prolonged affair in which the Romans fought valiantly to nearly the last man. 15 cohorts of Caesar’s total force were slaughtered .
THE BATTLE
While the Romans debated what to do, Ambiorix was carefully preparing an ambush along the path he knew his enemies would have to take. He placed his warriors on either side of a ravine, two miles north of the cantonment.
Thus, Ambiorix ordered his men to discharge their spears into the troops, to fall back if attacked by a group of Romans, and chase back the Romans when they tried to fall into rank. During the engagement, Cotta was hit full in the face by a sling-shot.
The Romans spent the night in disarray, putting together their belongings and preparing to march out of the fort once morning came.
The enemy heard the noise of preparations in the fort and prepared an ambush. When dawn broke, the Romans, in marching order (long columns of soldiers with each unit following the other), more heavily burdened than usual left the fort.
When the greater part of the column had entered a ravine, the Gauls assaulted them from either side and sought to harry the rear guard and prevent the vanguard from leaving the ravine.
Caesar notes that Sabinus lost his mind, running from cohort to cohort and issuing ineffectual orders. Cotta, by contrast, kept his cool and both did his duty as a commander, in action his duty as a soldier.
Due to the length of the column, the commanders could not issue orders efficiently so they passed word along the line to the units to form into a square.
The troops fought bravely, though with fear and in clashes were successful.
Ambiorix sent his men to charge the Romans, but they were cut down, so he pulled them back and reordered javelin barrages, which the Romans could not defend against, since the attack came from all sides and above them.
Sabinus recognized the hopelessness of the situation and requested a negotiation with Ambiorix. He was guaranteed safe passage but, when he arrived for the talks, Sabinas was killed, along with his bodyguard.
Cotta was also killed when the Eburones pressed their attack and destroyed his legion. The Romans who survived, fled back to the camp, they just marched out from and barred the gates, but they were pursued by the Eburones, and realizing they could not hold off the enemy, killed themselves.
The battle, conducted by Ambiorix, was a prolonged affair in which the Romans fought valiantly to nearly the last man. 15 cohorts were slaughtered, totaling nearly 7,200 men of Caesar’s total force.
After defeating Cotta and Sabinus, Ambiorix tried to raise a general revolt in Belgica.
Other survivors made their way through the forests, to the cantonment of Labienus and told him what just happened.
Labienus had not sent any warning to Cicero about the uprising (perhaps Ambiorix moved too quickly). Cicero’s cantonment was caught by surprise, when the Gallic forces came rushing from the tree line around the fort.
Those outside the walls were killed instantly, but the gates were swiftly shut and secured as a defense mounted. Just as before, Ambiorix could not break through the walls and suffered heavy casualties in the attempt.
AMBIORIX RALLIES THE TRIBES
At the camp of Labienus, the Romans were under constant pressure from the Eburones, Nervii and Treveri cavalry.
Word of Caesar’s victory, and the killing of the Treveri leader Indutiomarus, in a Roman raid led by Labienus relieved the pressure, but the situation remained unclear for the entire winter of 54 to 53 BC.
They next moved on the camp of Quintus Cicero, (younger brother of the orator Cicero) stationed with a legion in the territory of the Nervii, and laid siege.
Since deceit and trickery worked so well the first time, Ambiorix decided he might as well try it again.
Ambiorix unsuccessfully tried to repeat his earlier bluff. He met with Cicero for a negotiation and told the same story and urged the Romans to leave while they could, before the Germans arrived.
Ambiorix again, reassured them safe passage, in any direction they chose, but Cicero declined, stating it was not Roman policy to accept terms from an enemy in arms.
The reply, if Ambiorix would cease hostilities and disperse his army, then Cicero would inform Caesar of the situation and await Caesar’s decision and justice.
Ambiorix returned to his men and renewed the battle.
Messengers from the fort were quickly sent to Caesar, but were caught and killed.
A Nervian in the camp, named Vertico, and was a friend of Cicero’s, suggested sending one of his loyal slaves, a Gaul, who could easily slip through the lines.
Promising the man his freedom if he succeeded, he sent him off with a message inside the shaft of a javelin and the slave delivered the message to Caesar later, that same day.
CAESAR’S RESPONSE
Nine in every ten men under Cicero’s command had been reported as wounded, and Caesar procured them with great military honors for their service.
Caesar and Cicero moved to Samarobriva in December, to finally settle in to winter quarters.
Caesar, with a much smaller force of some 7,000 men, was able to defeat the poorly equipped and trained Gallic mob, but found Cicero and his men near utter disaster.
The attack only ultimately failed, due to the timely appearance of Caesar.
Acting with his usual resolve, Caesar ordered a forced march of his troops, to relieve Cicero. He sent messengers, to officers of other cantonments, to send reinforcements.
He quickly invaded the region of the Nervii where he took a number of them prisoner and learned the specifics of both Ambiorix’s uprising and the siege of Cicero’s cantonment.
The Treverian leader called for aid from the Senones and Germanic tribes east of the Rhine.
The Fourth Legion withstood the siege and Indutiomarus was killed after an unsuccessful attack. His relatives made their escape across the Rhine.
Before targeting the Eburones themselves, Caesar first attacked Ambiorix’s allies, forcing them to promise they would not help the tribe who destroyed Cotta and Sabinus.
The Nervii were the first victims of the Roman retaliation. During that winter, a force of four legions laid waste the fields and took many cattle and prisoners.
The Menapii were next, attacked by five legions to deprive Ambiorix of potential help.
Five legions were sent because, according to Caesar, they alone, of all the tribes of Gaul, had never sent ambassadors to him, to discuss terms of peace and had ties of hospitality with Ambiorix.
A renewed campaign of devastation finally forced them to submit, and Caesar placed his ally Commius of the Atrebates, in control of them.
Mobilizing his legions, Caesar immediately marched to Cicero’s aid.
As they approached the besieged Roman camp, the Belgae moved to engage Caesar’s troops. Ambiorix recalled his men and ordered a quick-march on Caesar’s position.
Caesar saw them coming from a distance and set his own trap. He ordered a cantonment built on the high ground of a hill overlooking the valley the Eburones would come from and directed it be made as small as possible, to give the impression, he had only a few soldiers instead of the 7,000 he commanded.
He then instructed his men to appear frightened of the approaching army, making only short forays beyond the walls, as though they anticipated an imminent attack and give no impression of a will to fight.
Ambiorix and his army were surprised to find so small a force sent against them. They considered Caesar a coward, for stopping his march and thought the little fort a pitiful attempt at defense.
To encourage the Eburones’ confidence, Caesar sent out a few forces, just so the Eburones could chase them back inside the walls.
Once Ambiorix had formed his army across the hill to charge the fort, Caesar saw the Eburones had nowhere to run for cover, so he ordered the attack!
Every gate of the tightly-packed fort was flung open and the Romans rushed down the hill, with cavalry in the lead, breaking the Eburone lines and throwing them into a confused panic.
The Eburones suffered heavy casualties in the opening clash. Those who survived were cut down as they tried to escape.
The Romans continued to massacre anyone found on the hillside, but Ambiorix and a few of his closest men escaped into the valley and evaded the cavalry sent to kill any survivors.
THE UPRISING CRUSHED
Caesar then had the fort dismantled and joined Cicero in his cantonment, after sending word to Labienus of his victory.
Meanwhile, Indutiomarus, leader of the Treverians, had just heard about Ambiorix’s earlier victory and marched his army to attack Labienus’ position.
Indutiomarus sent word to the Germans, a victory over Rome was certain, if they would join him, but they declined the offer, noting how they had been promised such victories over Rome in the past.
There is some evidence a German force was sent anyway to support the Gauls. Without waiting for German aid, Indutiomarus launched his attack on Labienus with complete confidence of victory.
Labienus, however, was equally confident; and with good reason. He was told by a deserter from Indutiomarus’ army, what his leader looked like and where he was positioned, so Labienus ordered his cavalry to take the Treverians and ignore all other warriors, until they had killed the Treverian king.
As soon as the charge was given, the cavalry made straight for Indutiomarus and killed him. The loss of their leader demoralized the Treverians, so they broke ranks and fled. Florus claimed, the Germans, may have been marching to support Indutiomarus, but turned back to their own lands.
Ambiorix deserted his tribe, with 4 of his bodyguards, and escaped across the Rhine into Germany. Caesar wanted him found, and later would even invade Germany himself, looking for him, but Ambiorix vanished and was never heard from again.
AFTERMATH & LEGACY
At the offset of 53 BC, Caesar trained two new legions and borrowed a third from Pompey.
Clearly Pompey and Caesar hadn’t completely fallen out yet, but this could’ve been done to force Caesar into Pompey’s debt.
Regardless, Caesar now had 10 full legions under his command and he would begin to put them to use as early as March.
The rest of 53 BC was occupied with a punitive campaign against the Eburones and their allies, who were said to have been all but exterminated by the Romans.
Caesar first punished the Nervii for their involvement in the revolt and identified other opposing tribes as the Senones, Carnutes, Treviri, Eburones and Menapii.
Winning victory easily, Caesar reinforced Labienus in facing the Treviri and their Germanic allies who had been crossing the Rhine. Labienus soundly defeated this opposition, bringing northeastern Gaul under Roman dominion once again, and Caesar was able to focus his attention on the source of many Gallic disruptions, the Rhine.
In the summer of 53 BC, Caesar once again bridged the Rhine to pursue Ambiorix and the Eburones. In a few short weeks, the land of the Eburones was decimated, though Ambiorix escaped Caesar’s grasp. Caesar’s Germanic allies, the Ubii, punished the Suevi on his behalf, for aiding the Treviri against Labienus.
At the end of the campaign year of 53 BC, general peace seemed to have returned to Gaul, and Caesar was able to revisit Cisalpine Gaul, to attend to political and administrative matters. However, word arrived of Crassus‘ great defeat of the Parthians at Carrhae, coupled with the death of Julia.
It was obvious the political situation was unraveling. Immeasurable bribery was taking place in Rome, along with lawsuits and trials of all sorts.
Mob violence between Clodius and Milo continued and elections for 53 had been delayed until summer; just about the time Caesar made his second crossing of the Rhine.
By early 52 BC, the situation in Rome was no better and had grown much worse.
Mob violence prevailed and elections were delayed,once again.
Caesar reasoned, if he could not bring Ambiorix to face Roman justice, he could bring Roman justice to Ambiorix’s people.
He enlisted a number of men from the defeated tribes into his army, through threats and rewards. Then sent these warriors out, as his vanguard to kill any of the Eburones they could find and, if possible, bring him Ambiorix.
Fields and homes were burned and cattle slaughtered, so those who were not killed outright by Roman forces, were left to starve to death.
The fate of the leaders of the revolt is different, but neither was taken to walk in Caesar’s triumphal parade.
Cativolcus was now old, weak and unable to endure the hardships of flight.
Ambiorix and his men, however, managed to cross the Rhine and disappeared without a trace. When the Roman Senate heard what happened, Caesar swore to put down all the Belgic tribes.
The Roman campaigns against the Belgae took a few years, but eventually the Belgae were no match against 50,000 trained Roman soldiers. The tribes were slaughter, driven out , enslaved, killed or starved.
Then Caesar built a bridge across the Rhine and campaigned in Germania, to punish the German tribes who aided the Treveri.
The Eburones ceased to exist following the campaign. After the uprising of 54/53 BC, the Eburones disappear from history, just as Ambiorix himself does.
However, ironically their memory was preserved, by Caesar in his Gallic Wars and other Roman historians, using his work as their source. Though Gallic Wars is sometimes viewed with skepticism by modern-day historians, it has been proven quite accurate in a number of instances.
